Physiological effects of the interaction between Nosema ceranae and sequential and overlapping exposure to glyphosate and difenoconazole in the honey bee Apis mellifera

Pathogens and pollutants, such as pesticides, are potential stressors to all living organisms, including honey bees. Herbicides fungicides among the most prevalent pesticides in beehive matrices, their interaction with Nosema ceranae is not well understood. In this study, interactions between N. ceranae, herbicide glyphosate fungicide difenoconazole were studied under combined sequential overlapping exposure at a concentration of 0.1 µg/L food. experiment, newly emerged bees exposed from day 3 13 after emerging 23. 7 17. Infection by early adult life stages (a few hours post emergence) greatly affected survival elicited much higher mortality than was induced either alone or combination. Overlapping both caused individual exposure. Overlapping, but sequential, synergistically increased adverse effect on bee longevity. The combination had strong impact physiological markers nervous system, detoxification, antioxidant defenses social immunity